diff --git a/class-two-factor-core.php b/class-two-factor-core.php
index d2ae83f4..03e696d4 100644
--- a/class-two-factor-core.php
+++ b/class-two-factor-core.php
@@ -547,7 +547,7 @@ public static function get_enabled_providers_for_user( $user = null ) {
 	 * @see Two_Factor_Core::get_enabled_providers_for_user()
 	 *
 	 * @param int|WP_User $user Optional. User ID, or WP_User object of the the user. Defaults to current user.
-	 * @return array List of provider instances.
+	 * @return array|WP_Error List of provider instances, or a WP_Error if all configured providers are unavailable.
 	 */
 	public static function get_available_providers_for_user( $user = null ) {
 		$user = self::fetch_user( $user );
@@ -558,6 +558,31 @@ public static function get_available_providers_for_user( $user = null ) {
 		$providers            = self::get_supported_providers_for_user( $user ); // Returns full objects.
 		$enabled_providers    = self::get_enabled_providers_for_user( $user ); // Returns just the keys.
 		$configured_providers = array();
+		$user_providers_raw   = get_user_meta( $user->ID, self::ENABLED_PROVIDERS_USER_META_KEY, true );
+
+		/**
+		 * If the user had enabled providers, but none of them exist currently,
+		 * if emailed codes is available force it to be on, so that deprecated
+		 * or removed providers don't result in the two-factor requirement being
+		 * removed and 'failing open'.
+		 * 
+		 * Possible enhancement: add a filter to change the fallback method?
+		 */
+		if ( empty( $enabled_providers ) && $user_providers_raw ) {
+			if ( isset( $providers['Two_Factor_Email'] ) ) {
+				// Force Emailed codes to 'on'.
+				$enabled_providers[] = 'Two_Factor_Email';
+			} else {
+				return new WP_Error(
+					'no_available_2fa_methods',
+					__( 'Error: You have Two Factor method(s) enabled, but the provider(s) no longer exist. Please contact a site administrator for assistance.', 'two-factor' ),
+					array(
+						'user_providers_raw'  => $user_providers_raw,
+						'available_providers' => array_keys( $providers ),
+					)
+				);
+			}
+		}
 
 		foreach ( $providers as $provider_key => $provider ) {
 			if ( in_array( $provider_key, $enabled_providers, true ) && $provider->is_available_for_user( $user ) ) {
@@ -596,7 +621,7 @@ public static function get_provider_for_user( $user = null, $preferred_provider
 
 		if ( is_string( $preferred_provider ) ) {
 			$providers = self::get_available_providers_for_user( $user );
-			if ( isset( $providers[ $preferred_provider ] ) ) {
+			if ( ! is_wp_error( $providers ) && isset( $providers[ $preferred_provider ] ) ) {
 				return $providers[ $preferred_provider ];
 			}
 		}
@@ -643,6 +668,9 @@ public static function get_primary_provider_for_user( $user = null ) {
 		// If there's only one available provider, force that to be the primary.
 		if ( empty( $available_providers ) ) {
 			return null;
+		} elseif ( is_wp_error( $available_providers ) ) {
+			// If it returned an error, the configured methods don't exist, and it couldn't swap in a replacement.
+			wp_die( $available_providers );
 		} elseif ( 1 === count( $available_providers ) ) {
 			$provider = key( $available_providers );
 		} else {
@@ -935,6 +963,11 @@ public static function login_html( $user, $login_nonce, $redirect_to, $error_msg
 
 		$rememberme = intval( self::rememberme() );
 
+		if ( is_wp_error( $available_providers ) ) {
+			// If it returned an error, the configured methods don't exist, and it couldn't swap in a replacement.
+			wp_die( $available_providers );
+		}
+
 		if ( ! function_exists( 'login_header' ) ) {
 			// We really should migrate login_header() out of `wp-login.php` so it can be called from an includes file.
 			require_once TWO_FACTOR_DIR . 'includes/function.login-header.php';
diff --git a/tests/class-two-factor-core.php b/tests/class-two-factor-core.php
index b1c187a3..9899bf67 100644
--- a/tests/class-two-factor-core.php
+++ b/tests/class-two-factor-core.php
@@ -301,6 +301,52 @@ public function test_get_available_providers_for_user_logged_in() {
 		wp_set_current_user( $old_user_id );
 	}
 
+	/**
+	 * Verify that if a user has a non-existent provider set, that it
+	 * swaps to email instead, rather than treating the user as having
+	 * no methods enabled.
+	 */
+	public function test_deprecated_provider_for_user() {
+		$user = $this->get_dummy_user();
+
+		// Set the dummy user with a non-existent provider.
+		update_user_meta(
+			$user->ID,
+			Two_Factor_Core::ENABLED_PROVIDERS_USER_META_KEY,
+			array(
+				'Two_Factor_Deprecated',
+			)
+		);
+
+		// This should fail back to `Two_Factor_Email` then.
+		$this->assertEquals(
+			array(
+				'Two_Factor_Email',
+			),
+			array_keys( Two_Factor_Core::get_available_providers_for_user( $user ) )
+		);
+
+		// Set the dummy user with a non-existent provider and a valid one.
+		update_user_meta(
+			$user->ID,
+			Two_Factor_Core::ENABLED_PROVIDERS_USER_META_KEY,
+			array(
+				'Two_Factor_Deprecated',
+				'Two_Factor_Dummy',
+			)
+		);
+
+		// This time it should just strip out the invalid one, and not inject a new one.
+		$this->assertEquals(
+			array(
+				'Two_Factor_Dummy',
+			),
+			array_keys( Two_Factor_Core::get_available_providers_for_user( $user ) )
+		);
+
+		$this->clean_dummy_user();
+	}
+
 	/**
 	 * Verify primary provider for not-logged-in user.
 	 *