From d48dd67d570c524a5448d5d8d786b8a80cb5a810 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: maurycy <5383+maurycy@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Wed, 29 Apr 2026 12:29:20 +0200
Subject: [PATCH 1/3] that's it?

---
 Modules/_remote_debugging/binary_io_reader.c | 8 ++++++++
 1 file changed, 8 insertions(+)

diff --git a/Modules/_remote_debugging/binary_io_reader.c b/Modules/_remote_debugging/binary_io_reader.c
index 6c32ef70ac3f65..b90d9a53cb18a2 100644
--- a/Modules/_remote_debugging/binary_io_reader.c
+++ b/Modules/_remote_debugging/binary_io_reader.c
@@ -563,6 +563,14 @@ reader_get_or_create_thread_state(BinaryReader *reader, uint64_t thread_id,
         }
     }
 
+    if (reader->thread_state_count >= reader->thread_count) {
+        PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
+            "Invalid thread count: sample data contains more unique threads than declared in header "
+            "(declared %u, found at least %zu)",
+            reader->thread_count, reader->thread_state_count + 1);
+        return NULL;
+    }
+
     if (!reader->thread_states) {
         reader->thread_state_capacity = 16;
         reader->thread_states = PyMem_Calloc(reader->thread_state_capacity, sizeof(ReaderThreadState));

From a0488e0ccf18f07afee683bc045279b60531c18f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: maurycy <5383+maurycy@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Wed, 29 Apr 2026 13:04:01 +0200
Subject: [PATCH 2/3] test

---
 .../test_binary_format.py                     | 30 +++++++++++++++++++
 1 file changed, 30 insertions(+)

diff --git a/Lib/test/test_profiling/test_sampling_profiler/test_binary_format.py b/Lib/test/test_profiling/test_sampling_profiler/test_binary_format.py
index 29f83c843561cd..ba13dfe1f6f7bf 100644
--- a/Lib/test/test_profiling/test_sampling_profiler/test_binary_format.py
+++ b/Lib/test/test_profiling/test_sampling_profiler/test_binary_format.py
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 import os
 import random
+import struct
 import tempfile
 import unittest
 from collections import defaultdict
@@ -806,6 +807,35 @@ def test_invalid_file_path(self):
                 reader.replay_samples(RawCollector())
 
 
+class TestBinaryFormatValidation(BinaryFormatTestBase):
+    """Tests for malformed binary files."""
+
+    HDR_OFF_THREADS = 32
+
+    def test_replay_rejects_more_threads_than_declared(self):
+        """Replay rejects files with more unique threads than the header declares."""
+        threads = [
+            make_thread(1, [make_frame("t1.py", 10, "t1")]),
+            make_thread(2, [make_frame("t2.py", 20, "t2")]),
+        ]
+        samples = [[make_interpreter(0, threads)]]
+        filename = self.create_binary_file(samples, compression="none")
+
+        with open(filename, "r+b") as raw:
+            raw.seek(self.HDR_OFF_THREADS)
+            raw.write(struct.pack("=I", 1))
+
+        with BinaryReader(filename) as reader:
+            self.assertEqual(reader.get_info()["thread_count"], 1)
+            with self.assertRaises(ValueError) as cm:
+                reader.replay_samples(RawCollector())
+            self.assertEqual(
+                str(cm.exception),
+                "Invalid thread count: sample data contains more unique "
+                "threads than declared in header (declared 1, found at least 2)",
+            )
+
+
 class TestBinaryEncodings(BinaryFormatTestBase):
     """Tests specifically targeting different stack encodings."""
 

From 12b05f33c47b77b3bb85c01ac0afb72651b82c30 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: maurycy <5383+maurycy@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Wed, 29 Apr 2026 13:08:48 +0200
Subject: [PATCH 3/3] blurb

---
 .../Library/2026-04-29-13-08-46.gh-issue-149009.rek3Tw.rst     | 3 +++
 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 Misc/NEWS.d/next/Library/2026-04-29-13-08-46.gh-issue-149009.rek3Tw.rst

diff --git a/Misc/NEWS.d/next/Library/2026-04-29-13-08-46.gh-issue-149009.rek3Tw.rst b/Misc/NEWS.d/next/Library/2026-04-29-13-08-46.gh-issue-149009.rek3Tw.rst
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000000..e2f078742760a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Misc/NEWS.d/next/Library/2026-04-29-13-08-46.gh-issue-149009.rek3Tw.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+Validate that :mod:`profiling.sampling` binary profiles do not contain more
+unique (thread, interpreter) pairs than declared in the header. Patch by
+Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.