[C++] Add Result-returning version of FileSystemFromUri

[asfimport]

Reporter: Kenta Murata / @mrkn
Assignee: Kenta Murata / @mrkn

PRs and other links:

• GitHub Pull Request #5952

_{Note: This issue was originally created as ARROW-7306. Please see the migration documentation for further details.}

[asfimport]

Antoine Pitrou / @pitrou:
Issue resolved by pull request 5952
#5952