[CI][C++] Add CI job for basic format support without ARROW_COMPUTE

[benibus]

Describe the enhancement requested

Following the compute kernel split in #34295, both libarrow and libparquet should now be fully functional without ARROW_COMPUTE. Previously, some tests in the core library were conditionally excluded - primarily due their usage of cast kernels. Thus, ARROW_COMPUTE is more-or-less treated as mandatory by the current CI jobs (in the interest maximum coverage). However, this should no longer be necessary.

It would be useful to include ARROW_CSV as well, since the CSV writer uses Cast in its implementation.

Component(s)

C++, Continuous Integration