1. State Root Uniqueness: Same input → same state root
2. Transaction Ordering: Canonical block ordering
3. Arithmetic Safety: No overflow/underflow
4. Storage Isolation: Contract storage separated

• All nodes must produce identical state roots
• Determinism tested via test vectors
• Fuzzing for edge cases

• Follow protocol correctly
• Produce valid state transitions

• Attempt double-spending
• Submit invalid state roots
• Try to break consensus

• Safety: No conflicting blocks finalized
• Liveness: System makes progress
• Finality: 2/3 validator agreement

• Stake locked as collateral
• Slashing for malicious behavior
• Jailing for downtime

Σ balances = TOTAL_SUPPLY - burned

No unauthorized minting.

• Gas metering prevents infinite loops
• Storage deposits prevent state bloat
• Nonce prevents replay attacks

• Slashing for insufficient capacity
• Slashing for downtime
• Governance override for extreme cases

• No direct system access
• Isolated storage
• Limited call depth

1. Check-inputs-early
2. Effects-interactions pattern
3. Use safe math
4. Emit events
5. Pausable functions

• Cannot modify past blocks
• Cannot confiscate without rule
• Bounded emergency powers
• Constitutional limits

• Snapshot prevents flash loans
• Timelock allows exit
• Quorum prevents capture

• Double voting
• Equivocation
• Invalid block proposals

• Failed availability proof
• Incorrect shard submission
• Repeated service failure

1. Detection: Anomaly detection
2. Containment: Pause affected modules
3. Recovery: Revert state if possible
4. Analysis: Post-mortem
5. Improvement: Protocol update

Required audit areas:

• Consensus implementation
• VM security
• Cryptographic primitives
• Economic model
• Governance logic